Reading the Bones of La Florida Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Reading the Bones of La Florida - Essay Example According to the research findings, it can, therefore, be said that Clark Spencer Larsen explores the engagement of Southeast Spanish missions in La Florida, identifying the cultural and traditional diet and work habits of the natives prior to the settlement of Europeans. Larsen capitalizes on the recent development and advancement of bio-archeology to present his arguments concerning health deterioration of the natives. Because human tissues contain stable isotopes such as nitrogen and carbon elements, bioarcheologists may utilize this information to reconstruct and determine the diets of ancient humans. Larsen revisits findings of carbon three and carbon four chemical signatures, different ratios of carbon 12 and carbon 13 isotopes, and different ratios of nitrogen 14 and nitrogen 15 isotopes in human beings to argue that the Native Americans on La Florida experienced a change of diet after the settlement of Europeans. Larsen focuses on research evidence on the chronological and ge ographical variations from Margret Schoeninger, Nikolaas van der Merwe, and Lynnet Norr concerning the difference in diet. The article emphasizes on three tribes: the Guale, the Timucua, and the Apalachee, all served by Spanish missions in coastal Georgia and Florida. Larsen builds a strong case against the change of diet as a major cause of health deterioration, providing the readers with bioarcheological bone evidence. Furthermore, he analyzes the working habits and living conditions, as well as the occurrence of rampant infections and easy onward transmission as other propagating factors to the poor health of the native Indians. With respect to the work habits, Larsen examines the working bones in the human skeleton. He argues that the human skeleton responds to physical activities in their entire lives, changing the structure and shape of the individual’s bones in order to respond to the mechanical forces acting upon them. Larsen further argues that the body weight or the pull of muscles triggers cellular activities that cause remodeling of the skeleton. This is in accordance with his findings from the La Florida Bioarchaeology Project. Larsen’s arguments and evidence ventures into the world of forensic science, particularly bio-molecular archeology in analyzing and studying DNA traces in ancient bones. The relatively new study of DNA focuses on fossilized teeth and bones. Moreover, adopted methods form immunology, analytical chemistry, and protein biochemistry enables scientists to investigate and analyze the fate of individual human communities. With particular emphasis has been the study of agriculture invention in human populations, diseases, and health. The great agricultural revolution of Mesopotamia that led to humans planting food crops and domesticating animals had a profound impact on human history. Nonetheless, the traditional assumption has been that this transition from a hunter-gatherer and foraging diet to another based on crop s would enhance the health of humans. This is where Larsen begins his arguments, stating that the revolution had both positive and negative impacts. Larsen refers to the agricultural revolution as an environmental catastrophe that led to the decrease in the quality of life for many human populations, with emphasis on La Florida. It is evident that the lives of Native Americans living in La Florida had an impact, but concluding that the revolution had similar impacts in other communities occupying other areas may be incorrect. Interestingly, critiques of industrial revolution express similar sentiments, arguing that the revolution minimizes the quality of human life.

The traditional role for soldiers in Elizabethan times Essay Example for Free

The traditional role for soldiers in Elizabethan times Essay The traditional role for soldiers in Elizabethan times was as a hero, very brave and fighting for the country. Black characters were normally seen as slaves and not important people. I agree with the title that Shakespeare has inverted these roles in Othello. I am going to study the two characters Iago and Othello. Iago plays a soldier who hates Othello and causes a lot of trouble. Othello is a black General who thinks that Iago is his loyal friend. In Iago Shakespeare has turned the idea of soldiers being brave, heroic and fighting for ones country to a villain who only looking out himself and has no sense of loyalty. Othello is different to traditional Black roles because he is seen as a powerful soldier who is sophisticated and respected instead of savage and low in society. Iagos philosophy is contrary to how soldiers are expected to behave. He is not following Othello out of loyalty In following him, I follow but myself. This shows he is only following Othello for personal gain, whereas soldiers are expected to fight for country and leaders. This would have intrigued the audience and given them something new that they werent used to. Unlike the traditional image of black characters in Elizabethan plays Othello is portrayed as sophisticated and important. When he is accused of witchcraft and corrupting Desdemona by Brabantio he stays calm and controlled handling the situation in a civilized manner, convincing Brabantio that maybe it is not a bad marriage after all. When Othello is talking to Brabantio he recounts the times he has told him tales from his life of being taken by the insolent foe and sold to slavery; of my redemption thence and portance in my travellers history this shows us that he has been through a lot so is worldly and experienced. His redemption shows us he is not a pagan as Brabantio described him. This would fascinate the audience who normally saw black characters in a very different light, and would shock them to see a black person in such a place of power. The impression we get of Iago as he persuades Othello is that he is very manipulative and cunning. He thought out his plan, scheming, almost like he playing a game of chess as each part of his plan falls into place. Iago knows that Othello is a bit insecure in his position so he uses flattery to get his trust. My Lord you know I love you. This makes Othello feel more secure. The way that Iago uses the things he knows about people shows us he is the one in control making things happen, as if he is the puppet master and all the other characters are just his puppets. Iago twists the story of how Desdemona and Othello she did deceive her father marrying you to make Desdemona look bad and untrustworthy. The audience like Iago because he is the one in control who makes everything happen. Without him the play would seem duller. He charms us with his cleverness and the way he speaks to the audience also makes them feel more like his friend. Soldiers were meant to be seen as people who follow the order of command instead of being the ones in control; Iago is the opposite of this. As Iago persuades Othello our opinion of him disintegrates and he starts to fit the traditionally weak character black people were given. His language becomes fragmented and disjointed No, not much moved: I do not think but Desdemonas honest. Not keeping the control he seemed to have at the beginning of the play. We can see that Iago has significantly influenced Othello as Othello takes on Iagos animalistic language I had rather be a toad and misogynistic terms impudent strumpet. Not only has he lost his controlled measured tone he also get to the point where he losses physical control and goes into a trance or fit. Othello takes on the villainous aspect of the traditional black role by the way he treats Desdemona Desdemona My Lord Othello I am glad to see you mad Desdemona why sweet Othello? Othello Divel. This shows us his darker side, as he is unforgiving and harsh even when she is crying. At the end of the play when Othello realises that Iago has tricked him he does regain some of the nobility he had in the beginning of the play. His speech returns to the eloquent and structured way he talked before although he still uses the animalistic tones he picked up from Iago as he describes himself as a circumcised dog. He is still insecure about how people see him so he explains of one who loved not too wisely but too well romanticising the fact that he has killed his wife which makes the audience feel sorry for him. He feels remorse and kills himself which makes it seem like a more valiant death instead acting like the savage villains black roles were normally given. Iago is the only one left at the end of the play alive that knows the whole story and what went on. He retains control by swearing not to speak leaving the other characters not knowing exactly what went on giving us an enigmatic ending. This shows us how very strong willed he is, as he has not changed but instead suspends our impression of him. I agree that Shakespeare inverts the traditional roles given to soldiers and black characters but I dont think that it is as straightforward as that. At the beginning of the play Othello is not very much like traditional black characters but as the play progresses we see him start to fit into that role more although he does redeem himself somewhat in the end. Iago shows no redeeming qualities that a soldier should have and is only working for his best interests right up until the end of the play. When Shakespeare wrote the play what was he trying to say? What he shows in this play is that on the outside a black character who is the leader of a white soldier, but looking deeper, we see that it is still the white person in control using Othello, exploiting him and eventually making him lose his life. Even when the black person is given power the white person is the one in control and it all ends tragically. Maybe in a society in which black people were not given many opportunities he was trying to justify this fact. Or maybe Shakespeare was just being a playwright trying to pull in large audiences by writing about sex, violence, exotic black characters and unconventional soldiers.

The Crucible: Hysteria And Injustice :: Essay on The Crucible

The Crucible: Hysteria and Injustice Thesis Statement: The purpose is to educate and display to the reader the hysteria and injustice that can come from a group of people that thinks it's doing the "right" thing for society in relation to The Crucible by Arthur Miller. I. Introduction: The play is based on the real life witch hunts that occurred in the late 1600's in Salem, Massachusetts. It shows the people's fear of what they felt was the Devil's work and shows how a small group of powerful people wrongly accused and killed many people out of this fear and ignorance. Also important to the play is how Arthur Miller depicts how one selfish, evil person like Abigail Williams can bring others down and make others follow her to commit evil acts. These evil acts affect even the most honest people in the town like John and Elizabeth Proctor, and Rebecca Nurse who cannot fight the accusations made against them by those following Abigail. Those following Abigail are considered to be holy men that are full of honesty and justice, but the play shows that even those who are thought to be respectable and right, like people of government or community leaders can bring death to innocent people if they are driven by something wrong. II. Plot: The plot begins with the inciting incident where Rev. Parris finds his niece Abigail Williams and his daughter Betty along with his slave Tituba doing some dance in the forest. Right when he finds them, Betty becomes sick and won't talk or open her eyes, about this time other people's daughters become sick too. Rumors spread that witch craft is involved in Betty's illness and the development of the plot begins. Important to the major development of the plot is the fact that in the forest, Abigail and the others were just playing like witches. But they were following Abigail because she wanted to try to put a curse on a lady named Elizabeth Proctor. Abigail was in love with Mrs. Proctor's husband, John Proctor, and she wanted to some how get rid of Elizabeth. The problem was that as the rumors spread about the devil Abigail went along with it and blamed the slave woman Tituba for forcing her to join the devil. The rising action begins when Tituba out of fear of death starts naming people that she says were with the devil when the devil came to her. This is all a lie though because once Abigail blamed Tituba she did not want to turn the story around and admit that she was lying in the first place because one, she was

Criminology

All the actors are using a technique to evaluate the situation, statistics to determine who the possible suspect Is, and unique skills to help find where this person may be. Criminology Is the study of crime Its causes, its history, and Its prevention. Criminologists have many other disciplines, because they also study the psychology of criminals, the social contexts that give rise to crime in specific geographical and demographical locations, and the systems of punishment that serve to confine or perpetuate criminal activity.Crime and punishment function uniquely In each society. Therefore, criminologists concerned with crime theory are interested in comparing crime trends in different societies. The study of criminology is a very interesting major in the fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that's what fascinates me the most. When I took the personality test my result was NEFF. In the understanding me port ion of the results It says, People Like me are very outgoing, enthusiastic, and spontaneous. I love meeting new people and probably have a large circle of friends ND acquaintances.Since I am always on the go and seem to have boundless energy, I am usually up for any new experience and especially love surprises! I am very curious, ask a lot of questions, and are fascinated by people or things that are out of the ordinary. Because of my vivid imagination, I have many ideas a day and am great at finding creative ways of solving problems or overcoming obstacles. I love to talk – especially about fun or interesting possibilities. People enjoy my unusual sense of humor and find me fun to be around. I pride myself on my uniqueness. I am also a insensitive and empathetic person who often has accurate Insights about others.My friends know I am devoted and affectionate and that I feel things very deeply, even If I don't always show It. But I may also take correctly personally and find my feelings are easily hurt. When I have a lot of details to remember or projects to manage, I may become overwhelmed or discouraged. In fact, my curiosity often distracts me from the more routine parts of projects and I probably find that staying organized is one of the hardest things for me to do. Making decisions is also a struggle because there re so many interesting options calling to me at once.Whatever career I choose, it has to be something I believe in or I won't be able to stick with it for very long. This is one of the main reasons I choose to study Criminology it is a fast pace very interesting Job that will catch my interest and keep me going. My strengths are Impressing people with my quickness and creativity. Anticipating the â€Å"right† answers people are looking for. Developing rapport easily, and changing gears quickly. Thinking quickly on my feet and articulating my strengths effectively. Networking effectively to create helpful relationships. My weakness' are not following have checked out all of my options.Being too idealistic and setting unrealistic goals. Not being very organized and not using my time well. Exaggerating or not being completely accurate with facts. For a career that would satisfy me it would have to let me work with lots of interesting creative people. Allow me to use my creativity to solve problems. Involve work that is fun, challenging, and always varied. Let me work at my own pace and schedule, with a minimum of rules or supervision. Be consistent with my personal values. Be done in an environment that is friendly, relaxed, and appreciates humor. Rarely requires me to be responsible for lots of details.Use my imagination to create products or services that help people. The median pay is about $74,960 per year and $34. 04 per hour. The entry education level is a master's degree. There does not need to be work experience in a related occupation or on-the-Job training. Number of Jobs in 2012 was 2,600. The Job gro wth is growing by 15% which is faster than average. This is a full time Job during regular business hours. Criminologist typically work in an office. They occasionally may work outside the office to conduct research through interviews or observations or present search results.The best way to get into this Job field is to have an advanced degree, strong statistical and research skills and a background in applied sociology. Criminologist would typically need a sociologist master's degree or Ph. D. There are two types of sociology master's degree programs: traditional programs and applied, clinical, and professional programs. Traditional programs prepare students to enter a Ph. D. Program. Applied, clinical, and professional programs prepare students to enter the professional workplace, teaching them the necessary analytical skills to perform sociological research in a reflections setting.Many students who complete a Ph. D. In sociology become postsecondary teachers. Other Ph. D. Gradu ates often become research sociologists for nonprofits, businesses, and governments. Courses in research methods and statistics are important for both master's and Ph. D. Candidates. Many programs also offer opportunities to gain experience through internships or by preparing reports for clients. Although some graduates with a bachelor's degree find work as sociology research assistants, most find positions in other fields, such as social services, administration, management, or sales and marketing.I plan to start my Journey through the criminology at DVD and then try to get into Sac State or US Davis. I think that Criminology is such an interesting major and topic that it will keep my interest, and it is expanding at a great rate 15% is the projected for the future. The fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that's what fascinates me the most. I believe I will strive in this Job force and be able to really s ucceed in this Job field. Criminology Criminology in the Future Roseland Cervantes-Barilla, Heather Arthur Dreamer, Andrea Patella, Samaritan Asparagus, and Everett Titus CA 314 August 18, 2014 Paula Rootstock Crime fighting techniques are always evolving; which will help decrease crime rate over time. There are new crime-fighting methodologies developed and improved on every day; biometrics, cybercafà © spare, and DNA collection programs. Criminology has evolved greatly, however policies from the past are still used today; such as the Classical Schools concept.However, there have been many improvements in the policies in the past. Theories are developed and expanded on concerning why individuals commit crimes, such as the social learning theory and social structure theory. Although these methods help reduce crime and possibly detect criminal activity, some theories and crime-fighting methodologies violate civil liberty. Future of Crime Fighting Crime is a major part of our history, present, and our future. People are n ot perfect, and the world is a cruel place for people to live in now days.The future is what we need to look to, and our future is in the hands of ourselves. It is our Job to ensure that we do have a future and that our children have a safe place to live as they grow up as well. It's important for us to take action now, that way in the future hopefully things will be better. It will not be an easy road to go down but it is one we need to go down non-the-less. Nothing is easy in life, and we have to stand up and fight for the things we want; otherwise crime will overrun the streets and spiral out of hand.Crime-fighting Methodologies Although, we need to ensure the safety of the people, the future of crime fighting needs to be mindful of an individual's rights as well. It will take professional work, and expertise to overcome this hard road. The most-important issue when it comes future policies of crime fighting is the safety of the citizens. One of the biggest social issues of the f uture will be the internet. We already have a start to the future with tools like fingerprinting, facial recognition, voice recognition, and iris scans.All these things are crucial aspects to the crime fighting fields. DNA testing is another major way of identification that can't be altered. Through the years, technology has grown and has developed. It has helped ensure public safety in many ways, it also has helped state and local communities better use existing technology. It has improved criminal records and identification systems to keep high-risk individuals from locating weapons or positions of trust. There are many databases used by the criminal Justice system from the combined DNA Index system, biometrics, cybercafà © spare and others.DNA Testing The combined DNA index system is a useful tool in solving crimes. In 1998, it was officially initiated it allowed participating forensic laboratories to compare DNA roofless with the main purpose to match case evidence to other unr elated cases or to other persons that have been already convicted of specific crimes. DNA can be very useful when solving crimes one of two ways. When a suspect is identified, a sample of their DNA can be compared to evidence of the crime scene.In the case where there is no suspect that has been identified, evidence that is left from the crime scene can be analyzed and compared to profiles in the DNA database to help identify the perpetrator. There have been many controversy about obtaining DNA the con in n article by Generated titled â€Å"Retreating Justice†; â€Å"storing DNA taken from unsuspected individuals in a criminal database undermines presumptive innocence and sets a chilling precedent for data collection by the government of its citizens.In addition, it violates the rights of people to be secure and protected from ‘unreasonable searches and seizures' as is guaranteed by the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution. † (http://UCLA. Procom. Org/view. Answe rs. PH? Questioned=()00685) Regardless how you look at it the DNA index system when used properly can solve a rime and is very useful for law enforcement. With the ongoing growth of technology, they will find more fast and efficient ways to solve crimes and catch criminals.Biometrics According to the NJ, Biometrics is the science of using one or more physical characteristics or behavioral traits to identify individuals. Biometrics helps law enforcement agencies track individuals down. One known biometric technology is fingerprinting. This method provides accurate information of detecting criminals. Fingerprinting also helps secure borders and prevent identity theft. Cybercafà © Spy;are So many people use the internet and use that as a way of communication, business, etc. This has had a dramatic rise in crimes through this technology.Public and private entities have developed these techniques and others to address cybercafà © which include fraud, child exploitation, viruses, and ma ny more crimes. There are numerous agencies in the U. S including the federal government level the US department of Justice, homeland security, local and state Law Enforcement that have the responsibility to investigate and prosecute cybercafà ©s. Crime fighting techniques are always evolving and improving; the growth helps educe the amount of crime committed each year.There are new crime-fighting methodologies developed and improved on every day; biometrics, cybercafà © spare, and DNA collection programs. Criminology has grown greatly and has been expanded on. However policies from the past are still used today because they still apply to society and the relation to crime. However, there have been many improvements in the policies in the past. Although these methods help reduce crime and possibly detect criminal activity, some theories and crime-fighting methodologies violate civil liberty. Criminology All the actors are using a technique to evaluate the situation, statistics to determine who the possible suspect Is, and unique skills to help find where this person may be. Criminology Is the study of crime Its causes, its history, and Its prevention. Criminologists have many other disciplines, because they also study the psychology of criminals, the social contexts that give rise to crime in specific geographical and demographical locations, and the systems of punishment that serve to confine or perpetuate criminal activity.Crime and punishment function uniquely In each society. Therefore, criminologists concerned with crime theory are interested in comparing crime trends in different societies. The study of criminology is a very interesting major in the fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that's what fascinates me the most. When I took the personality test my result was NEFF. In the understanding me port ion of the results It says, People Like me are very outgoing, enthusiastic, and spontaneous. I love meeting new people and probably have a large circle of friends ND acquaintances.Since I am always on the go and seem to have boundless energy, I am usually up for any new experience and especially love surprises! I am very curious, ask a lot of questions, and are fascinated by people or things that are out of the ordinary. Because of my vivid imagination, I have many ideas a day and am great at finding creative ways of solving problems or overcoming obstacles. I love to talk – especially about fun or interesting possibilities. People enjoy my unusual sense of humor and find me fun to be around. I pride myself on my uniqueness. I am also a insensitive and empathetic person who often has accurate Insights about others.My friends know I am devoted and affectionate and that I feel things very deeply, even If I don't always show It. But I may also take correctly personally and find my feelings are easily hurt. When I have a lot of details to remember or projects to manage, I may become overwhelmed or discouraged. In fact, my curiosity often distracts me from the more routine parts of projects and I probably find that staying organized is one of the hardest things for me to do. Making decisions is also a struggle because there re so many interesting options calling to me at once.Whatever career I choose, it has to be something I believe in or I won't be able to stick with it for very long. This is one of the main reasons I choose to study Criminology it is a fast pace very interesting Job that will catch my interest and keep me going. My strengths are Impressing people with my quickness and creativity. Anticipating the â€Å"right† answers people are looking for. Developing rapport easily, and changing gears quickly. Thinking quickly on my feet and articulating my strengths effectively. Networking effectively to create helpful relationships. My weakness' are not following have checked out all of my options.Being too idealistic and setting unrealistic goals. Not being very organized and not using my time well. Exaggerating or not being completely accurate with facts. For a career that would satisfy me it would have to let me work with lots of interesting creative people. Allow me to use my creativity to solve problems. Involve work that is fun, challenging, and always varied. Let me work at my own pace and schedule, with a minimum of rules or supervision. Be consistent with my personal values. Be done in an environment that is friendly, relaxed, and appreciates humor. Rarely requires me to be responsible for lots of details.Use my imagination to create products or services that help people. The median pay is about $74,960 per year and $34. 04 per hour. The entry education level is a master's degree. There does not need to be work experience in a related occupation or on-the-Job training. Number of Jobs in 2012 was 2,600. The Job gro wth is growing by 15% which is faster than average. This is a full time Job during regular business hours. Criminologist typically work in an office. They occasionally may work outside the office to conduct research through interviews or observations or present search results.The best way to get into this Job field is to have an advanced degree, strong statistical and research skills and a background in applied sociology. Criminologist would typically need a sociologist master's degree or Ph. D. There are two types of sociology master's degree programs: traditional programs and applied, clinical, and professional programs. Traditional programs prepare students to enter a Ph. D. Program. Applied, clinical, and professional programs prepare students to enter the professional workplace, teaching them the necessary analytical skills to perform sociological research in a reflections setting.Many students who complete a Ph. D. In sociology become postsecondary teachers. Other Ph. D. Gradu ates often become research sociologists for nonprofits, businesses, and governments. Courses in research methods and statistics are important for both master's and Ph. D. Candidates. Many programs also offer opportunities to gain experience through internships or by preparing reports for clients. Although some graduates with a bachelor's degree find work as sociology research assistants, most find positions in other fields, such as social services, administration, management, or sales and marketing.I plan to start my Journey through the criminology at DVD and then try to get into Sac State or US Davis. I think that Criminology is such an interesting major and topic that it will keep my interest, and it is expanding at a great rate 15% is the projected for the future. The fact that it deals with the human brain yet it also plays a huge role in helping keep the community safe, I think that's what fascinates me the most. I believe I will strive in this Job force and be able to really s ucceed in this Job field.

Pestel and Porters Tesco

PESTEL provides an analysis into the external business factors which may effect the company performances. It can be used on a daily, weekly, monthly and yearly basis to analysis the macro environmental effects on a company. POLITICAL-EU Free trading laws promoting trade between western and eastern European resulting in expansion of tesco retail outlets ECONOMIC-Economic recession has affected consumers buying behaviors. Consumers buy essential commodities however the demand for luxury has decreased.Consumers spend less time eating out and spend more time eating in, in order to cut down on cost. SOCIAL-The majority of the uk population is made up of retired people who spend less on food and eat less. Consumer attitude changing to become more healthy. Increase in demand for organic foods. Increase in UK ethnicity population has lead to a wide range of food items available in store TECHNOLOGICAL-Increase in population access to internet has caused an increase in Online grocery shopping. Loyaty programs has enabled tesco to analyze consumers spending habits.Mobile technology allowing convenient shopping on mobile devices. Self service tills makes buying quicker for customers ENVIRONMENTAL-Incentives to re-use bags and be more environmentally friendly. Recycling center’s available at tescos. Carbon foot print data available on some products. Greener living scheme which advices customers on environmental issues such as how to reduce food waste and carbon foot print when preparing meals LEGAL-Increase in VAT rate will affect the non-food sector of tescos. Increase of minimum wage of over 21s (from 6. 08 to 6. 9) impacts operating costs. PORTERS 5 forces allows the analysis of the competitive environment. SUBSTITUTE of PRODUCTS and services-Low threat of substitute for food products as tescos provides quality goods at low prices Substitutes- indirect- pubs offering food, local marketss or shops, on line suppliers New COMPETITORS – Low rate of competition from new entrants into the market because it takes a huge investment and a new business pathway to capture customers however lidl, aldi have come in to the market capturing a new market with lower prices.Marks and spencer offer food at the high end of the market Old COMPETITORS – High rate of competition from other food retail stores such as asda, Morrison, Sainsbury’s and waitros in the form of price, promotions and retaining customer loyalty. Competitors Sainsbury etc compete as a traditional competitor for market share BARGINING POWER OF BUYERS High bargaining powers of buyers in the supermarkets, high.We have lots of choice as to where we shop. Tesco have to keep on their toes to be competitive. When I take the DLR to work however the buyer has no power, no choice, so prices go up BARGINING POWERS OF SUPPLIERS – suppliers to supermarkets have little power and get squeezed by the big boys. they have to supply at a lower price, will not get paid by tesco until it suits tesco.

Medieval Childbirth and Baptism

Medieval Childbirth and Baptism The concept of childhood in the middle ages and the importance of the child in medieval society is not to be overlooked in history. It is fairly clear from the laws designed specifically for the care of children that childhood was recognized as a distinct phase of development and that, contrary to modern folklore, children were not treated as nor expected to behave as adults. Laws regarding the rights of orphans are among the pieces of evidence we have that children had value in society, as well. It is difficult to imagine that in a society where so much value was placed on children, and so much hope was invested in a couples ability to produce children, children would regularly suffer from a lack of attention or affection. Yet this is the charge that has often been made against medieval families. While there have been- and continue to be- cases of child abuse and neglect in western society, to take individual incidents as indicative of an entire culture would be an irresponsible approach to history. Instead, let us look at how society in general regarded the treatment of children. As we take a closer look at childbirth and baptism, well see that, in most families, children were warmly and happily welcomed into the medieval world. Childbirth in the Middle Ages Because the foremost reason for marriage at any level of medieval society was to produce children, the birth of a baby was usually a cause for joy. Yet there was also an element of anxiety. While the childbirth mortality rate is probably not as high as folklore would have it,   there was still a possibility of complications, including birth defects or a breech birth, as well as the death of mother or child or both. And even under the best of circumstances, there was no effective anesthetic to eradicate the pain. The lying-in room was almost exclusively the province of women; a male physician would only be called in when surgery was necessary.  Under ordinary circumstances, the mother- be she peasant, town-dweller, or noblewoman- would be attended by midwives. A midwife would usually have more than a decade of experience, and she would be accompanied by assistants whom she was training. In addition, female relatives and friends of the mother would frequently be present in the birthing room, offering support and good will, while the father was left outside with little more to do but pray for a safe delivery. The presence of so many bodies could raise the temperature of a room already made warm by the presence of a fire, which was used to heat water for bathing both mother and child. In the homes of the nobility, gentry, and wealthy townspeople, the birthing room would usually be freshly-swept and provided with clean rushes; the best coverlets were put on the bed and the place was turned out for display. Sources indicate that some mothers may have given birth in a sitting or squatting position.  To ease the pain and to hasten the process of childbirth, the midwife might rub the mothers belly with ointment. Birth was usually expected within 20 contractions; if it took longer, everyone in the household might try to help it along by opening cupboards and drawers, unlocking chests, untying knots, or even shooting an arrow into the air. All of these acts were symbolic of opening the womb. If all went well, the midwife would tie off and cut the umbilical cord and help the baby take its first breath, clearing its mouth and throat of any mucus. She would then bathe the child in warm water or, in more affluent homes, in milk or wine;  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹she might also use salt, olive oil, or rose petals. Trotula of Salerno, a 12th-century female physician, recommended washing the tongue with hot water to assure the child would speak properly.  It was not uncommon to rub honey on the palate to give the baby an appetite. The infant would then be swaddled snugly in linen strips so that his limbs might grow straight and strong, and laid in a cradle in a dark corner, where his eyes would be protected from bright light. It would soon be time for the next phase in his very young life: Baptism. Medieval Baptism The primary purpose of  baptism  was to wash away original sin and drive all evil from the newborn child. So important was this  sacrament  to the Catholic Church that the usual opposition to women performing sacerdotal duties was overcome for fear an infant might die unbaptized. Midwives were authorized to perform the rite if the child was unlikely to survive and there was no man nearby to do it. If the mother died in childbirth, the midwife was supposed to cut her open and extract the baby so that she could baptize it. Baptism had another significance: it welcomed a new Christian soul into the community. The rite conferred a name on the infant that would identify him throughout his life, however short it might be. The official ceremony in the church would establish lifelong ties to his godparents, who were not supposed to be related to their godchild through any blood or marriage link. Thus, from the very beginning of his life, the medieval child had a relationship to the community beyond that defined by kinship. The role of godparents was mainly spiritual: they were to teach their godchild his prayers and instruct him in faith and morals. The relationship was considered as close as a blood link, and marriage to ones godchild was prohibited.  Because godparents were expected to bestow gifts on their godchild, there was some temptation to designate many godparents, so the number had been limited by the Church to three: a godmother and two godfathers for a son; a godfather and two godmothers for a daughter. Great care was taken when selecting prospective godparents; they might be chosen from among the parents employers, guild members, friends, neighbors, or lay clergy. No one from a family that the parents hoped or planned to marry the child into would be asked. Generally, at least one of the godparents would be of a higher social status than the parent. A child was usually baptized on the day he was born. The mother would stay at home, not only to recuperate, but because the Church generally followed the Jewish custom of keeping women from holy places for several weeks after giving birth. The father would assemble the godparents, and together with the midwife they would all bring the child to the church. This procession would frequently include friends and relatives, and could be quite festive. The priest would meet the baptismal party at the church door. Here he would ask if the child had been baptized yet and whether it was a boy or a girl. Next he would bless the baby, put salt in its mouth to represent the reception of wisdom, and exorcise any demons. Then he would test the godparents knowledge of the prayers they were expected to teach the child: the  Pater Noster,  Credo, and  Ave Maria. Now the party entered the church and proceeded to the  baptismal font. The priest would anoint the child, immerse him in the font, and name him. One of the godparents would raise the baby up from the water and wrap him in a christening gown. The gown, or crysom, was made of white linen and might be decorated with seed pearls; less wealthy families might use a borrowed one. The last part of the ceremony took place at the altar, where the godparents made the profession of faith for the child. The participants would then all return to the parents house for a feast. The entire procedure of baptism mustnt have been a pleasant one for the newborn. Removed from the comfort of its home (not to mention its mothers breast) and carried out into the cold, cruel world, having salt shoved into its mouth, immersed in water that could be dangerously cold in winter all this must have been a jarring experience. But for the family, the godparents, friends, and even the community at large, the ceremony heralded the arrival of a new member of society. From the trappings that went with it, it was an occasion that appears to have been a welcome one. Sources: Hanawalt, Barbara,  Growing Up in Medieval London  (Oxford University Press, 1993). Gies, Frances, and Gies, Joseph,  Marriage and the Family in the Middle Ages  (Harper Row, 1987). Hanawalt, Barbara, The Ties that Bound: Peasant Families in Medieval England (Oxford University Press, 1986).

The Process of Food Consumption essays

The Process of Food Consumption essays We all need the energy to function, and we get this energy from the foods we eat. The most efficient way for cells to harvest energy stored in food is through cellular respiration; which requires a cell to exchange two gases with its surroundings. The cell takes in oxygen in the form of the gas. It then throws away the waste in the form of the gas carbon dioxide. Oxygen present in the air you inhale disperses across the outline of your lungs and into your bloodstream. And the carbon dioxide in your bloodstream diffuses into your lungs and exits when you exhale. Every molecule of carbon dioxide that you exhale was originally formed in one of the mitochondria of your body's cells. (Chapter 6 pg. 91) Let's start with the stage of cellular respiration; glycolysis means "splitting sugars." Glucose, a six-carbon sugar, it is split into two molecules of three-carbon sugar. During the process, two molecules of ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid and two high-energy electron carrying molecules of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are produced. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the company of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP; this process is called fermentation. Fermentation is the breakdown of sugar into an acid or alcohol. According to www.khanacademy.org, these are the steps of glycolysis step one the enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates adds a phosphate group to glucose in the cell's cytoplasm. In the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing glucose phosphate. Step two, the enzyme phosphoglucoisomerase converts glucose phosphate into its iso mer fructose phosphate. Isomers have the same molecular formula, but the atoms of each molecule are arranged differently. Step three, the enzyme phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to fructose phosphate to form fructose, bi...